A Very Short History of Computer Ethics

-Terrell Ward Bynum

Summary:

Professor Norbert Wiener introduced computer ethics in early 1940s while helping to develop anti-aircraft canon. One of the parts help to track the aircraft and another part would find the trajectory to fire the shells. It instigated Wiener and his colleagues to initiate new branch of science. Wiener called it as ‘cybernetics’ that means the science of information feedback system. This concept led Wiener to think about ethical matters of the digital world. He estimated some revolutionary social and ethical consequences of the digital world. He published a book named Cybernetics: or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine in 1948. He mentioned that humans were able to make any kind of artificial machine. The reflection would have seen in Nagasaki long before. Humans also developed another social potentiality unheard of good or evil.

In 1950, Wiener published a book, The Human Use of Human Being, which established the foundation of computer ethics. He hadn’t mentioned the word ‘ethics’ but it helped a lot to establish the system of computer ethics in computer technology. He clearly stated that the use of computer technology in the society would help to reconstruct the society in a different manner. He called that as ‘second industrial revolution’ which would affect every aspects of human life. Computer revolution is a multi-faceted ongoing process which would change everything. It had created diversity of tasks and challenges to workers, governments, professional organizations, sociologists, psychologists and philosophers.

Ethics stood as an important area of information and technology. Unfortunately, it remained undeveloped and unexplored till 1960s. Computer related social and ethical consequences had already become popular/ affective till that time. Such programs had begun rapidly from that time. In 1973, Donn Parker wrote books and articles related to computer crime and code of ethics to the members of Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). He was attracted by bank-robberies and other computer related crimes so he was interested to analyze it. Later on, ACM was revised in 1980s and early 1990s to make it contextual.

In 1960s, computer related invasion was too much. The government worked like ‘big brother’ by publishing books, articles, and government studies piercing privacy of people. By the mid 1970s, privacy laws and computer crime laws had been introduced in America and Europe. Computer professionals had to follow the codes compulsorily. At the same time MIT scientist, Joseph Weizenbaum developed computer program called ELIZA. It helped to work as psychotherapist to some patients. Though it was a simple program, it brought a great revolution among some psychiatrists. It was an evidence that computer would help for treating psychotherapy. Some students and staff of MIT also emotionally attracted with it and shared their intimate thoughts. It brought some ethical concern in the field of computer science; then Weizenbaum wrote a book Computer Power and Human Reason in 1976. It was taken as a classic example of computer ethics.

In 1976, Walter Maner had taken it as an important factor while teaching medical ethics to his students. It raised new ethical manners when there was the use of computer in medical field. It also convinced him the need of ‘computer ethics’, the word which he dubbed first in computer field. Likewise he defined computer ethics as a guideline for dealing the subject. He published it in A Starter Kit for Teaching Computer Ethics.

With the inspiration of Maner, Terrell Ward Bynum developed curriculum materials for university in 1979. He also organized various seminars and conferences in the early 1980s across America. In 1983, Bynum organized essay competition to increase the interest of public through his journal Metaphilosophy. He had also given space to computer ethics in his paper. The special issue was named as Computers and Ethics in which James Moor became first in essay writing competition and his topics was: What Is Computer Ethics?

Moor described computer ethics as new field and it ensured us new capabilities. The existing policies were inadequate for this. A pivotal task was to determine what we should do and what we shouldn’t do. It affected both individual and the society in a different manner rather than applied ethics.

In 1985, Deborah Johnson published Computer Ethics and John Snapper published some articles in Ethical Issues in the Use of Computers. Johnson described computer ethics as new twist of the applied ethics. It couldn’t exceed the old ethical issues rather people were forced to deal in new field with old ideas. Johnson didn’t take it as totally new issue like Maner, she took it as a new twist of the old systems like ownership, power, privacy and responsibility.

It started to develop fully after 1985. University courses, research centers, conferences, articles and textbooks had also been published. Many scholars had also taken it as a distinct field of science. It had fully been developed in Europe and Australia. Research centers had also been established in different countries of Europe. An international conference like ETHICOMP had also been organized to make it more effective and public.

It has been expanded in the last two decades which will have vigorous and significant future. Two scholars, Krystyna Gorniak-Kocikowska and Deborah Johnson have presented two contradicting logics regarding computer ethics. Johnson argued that it would disappear in common or applied ethics which the writer didn’t believe on.

In 1995, Gorniak guessed that the field of computer ethics would evolve as a system of global ethics. It would be applicable in every culture on earth in a different manner. Computer ethics would have developed just as the ethical issue of printing press raised by Behtham and Kant. It would get more value than the belief of its founders and advocates. Computer ethics will have a global character. It will cover the entire globe in space and human actions and relations. It doesn’t have border because of its global character. When we talk about computer ethics we talk about global ethics.

According to Gorniak, computer ethics would supersede the ethics of the eastern and western culture. It will become a common ethics of these days. On the other hand, in 1999, Johnson wrote in her ETHICOM paper that the common ethics will be computer ethics as it will disappear in the coming days. The idea of Johnson is much different than the ideas of Gorniak. He claimed that computer ethics would be global and cross-cultural in nature. The new ethics would displace narrow theories like Bentham’s and Kant’s.

Johnson’s ideas are opposite of Gorniak’s as computer ethics would presuppose some other theories rather than replacing the old theories of ethics. Johnson claimed that the current theories would remain as bedrock to computer ethics. It wouldn’t lead to a revolution in ethics rather we need to accept the old one in a new form.

In the 21^st century, the thinkers have presented two different views of computer ethics. Wiener-Maner-Gorniak regards computer ethics as revolutionary. Humans should redefine their old ethics to meet the demand of new ethics. On the other hand, Johnson argued that computer ethics is only the new twist of old ethics. She argued that computer ethics will ultimately disappear in applied ethics of traditional norms at last.

A.    Read the given text carefully and answer the following questions briefly.

1.      What do you understand by ‘cybernetics’?

Cybernetics is known as the science of information feedback system.

2.      Why does the computer have ‘another social potentiality of unheard-of importance for good and for evil’?

Computer has stood as a separate genre in our society but we need to understand the good or evil aspect of it to use it properly.

3.      How did Wiener think of computer technology as remaking society?

The integration of computer technology into society would constitute its remaking.

4.      How did Maner’s work inspire Terrell Bynum?

Maner’s work inspired Bynum to develop curriculum in universities.

5.      What is your view of the future of computer ethics as derived from this lesson?

It has been developing as a separate field so we need different code of conduct to make it systematic.

B.     Choose from a, b and c the correct endings to the following sentences.

1.      Computer ethics was founded: while helping to develop anti-aircraft cannon capable of shooting down fast airplanes.

2.      Some psychiatrists viewed Weizenbaum’s results as evidence that computers can: provide automated psychotherapy.

3.      In the Gorniak Hypothesis, Gorniak predicted that computer ethics: will evolve into a system of global ethics applicable to every culture on earth.

C.    Vocabulary ‘B’

Pediatrician = Child specialist

Psychiatrist = Deals to treat mentally ill patients

Cardiologist = Deals to treat heart disease

Obstetrician= Deals with woman pregnancy

Astronomer = Deals with space and stars

Photographer = Takes photographer

Orthopedist = Deals with bone treatment

Neurologist = Deals with nerves and veins

Gynecologist = Deals with female reproductive system

Opthalmologist = Deals with eye problem

Anaesthetist = Deals with surgery

Geriatrician = Deals with treatment of elderly people.

D.    Vocabulary ‘C’

Result = consequence

Fated = lucky

Worsen = bad

Healthy = robust

View = scenery

Known = recognition

-By Prem Prasad Sigdel